diff --git a/action.cm b/action.cm
index 5736a03e..1b2f4eb8 100644
--- a/action.cm
+++ b/action.cm
@@ -226,7 +226,7 @@ action.on_input = function(action_id, evt)
   var matched_actions = []
   arrfor(array(this.action_map), mapped_action => {
     if (find(this.action_map[mapped_action], action_id) != null) {
-      matched_actions.push(mapped_action)
+      push(matched_actions, mapped_action)
       
       if (evt.pressed)
         this.down[mapped_action] = true
@@ -256,14 +256,14 @@ action.rebind_action = function(action_name, new_key) {
   arrfor(array(this.action_map), act => {
     var idx = find(this.action_map[act], new_key)
     if (idx != null)
-      this.action_map[act].splice(idx, 1)
+      this.action_map[act] = array(array(this.action_map[act], 0, idx), array(this.action_map[act], idx+1))
   })
   
   // Clear existing bindings for the current device from the target action
   var target_bindings = this.action_map[action_name]
   for (var i = length(target_bindings) - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
     if (detect_device(target_bindings[i]) == this.current_device)
-      target_bindings.splice(i, 1)
+      this.action_map[action_name] = array(array(this.action_map[action_name], 0, i), array(this.action_map[action_name], i+1))
   }
   
   // Only insert into the target if it's the right device
diff --git a/clay.cm b/clay.cm
index 01cb039e..28b1f4c0 100644
--- a/clay.cm
+++ b/clay.cm
@@ -130,7 +130,7 @@ function build_drawables(node, root_height, parent_abs_x, parent_abs_y, parent_s
   // Background
   if (node.config.background_image) {
     if (node.config.slice) {
-      drawables.push({
+      push(drawables, {
         type: 'sprite',
         image: node.config.background_image,
         pos: {x: vis_x, y: vis_y},
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ function build_drawables(node, root_height, parent_abs_x, parent_abs_y, parent_s
         scissor: current_scissor
       })
     } else {
-      drawables.push({
+      push(drawables, {
         type: 'sprite',
         image: node.config.background_image,
         pos: {x: vis_x, y: vis_y},
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ function build_drawables(node, root_height, parent_abs_x, parent_abs_y, parent_s
       })
     }
   } else if (node.config.background_color) {
-     drawables.push({
+     push(drawables, {
        type: 'rect',
        pos: {x: vis_x, y: vis_y},
        width: rect.width,
@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ function build_drawables(node, root_height, parent_abs_x, parent_abs_y, parent_s
   
   // Content (Image/Text)
   if (node.config.image) {
-    drawables.push({
+    push(drawables, {
       type: 'sprite',
       image: node.config.image,
       pos: {x: vis_x, y: vis_y},
@@ -180,7 +180,7 @@ function build_drawables(node, root_height, parent_abs_x, parent_abs_y, parent_s
   }
   
   if (node.config.text) {
-    drawables.push({
+    push(drawables, {
       type: 'text',
       text: node.config.text,
       font: node.config.font_path,
@@ -249,15 +249,15 @@ function push_node(configs, contain_mode) {
   
   // Add to parent
   var parent = tree_stack[length(tree_stack)-1]
-  parent.children.push(node)
+  push(parent.children, node)
   lay_ctx.insert(parent.id, item)
   
-  tree_stack.push(node)
+  push(tree_stack, node)
   return node
 }
 
 function pop_node() {
-  tree_stack.pop()
+  pop(tree_stack)
 }
 
 // Generic container
diff --git a/clay_input.cm b/clay_input.cm
index 67d9d4d4..bc6a42ad 100644
--- a/clay_input.cm
+++ b/clay_input.cm
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ clay_input.click = function click(tree_root, mousepos, button = 'left') {
 clay_input.get_actionable = function get_actionable(tree_root) {
   var actionable = []
   function walk(node) {
-    if (node.config.action) actionable.push(node)
+    if (node.config.action) push(actionable, node)
     if (node[clay.CHILDREN])
       arrfor(node[clay.CHILDREN], walk)
   }
@@ -85,7 +85,7 @@ clay_input.get_actionable = function get_actionable(tree_root) {
 clay_input.filter = function filter(tree_root, predicate) {
   var results = []
   function rec(node) {
-    if (predicate(node)) results.push(node)
+    if (predicate(node)) push(results, node)
     if (node[clay.CHILDREN])
       arrfor(node[clay.CHILDREN], rec)
   }
diff --git a/compositor.cm b/compositor.cm
index e0a67a7b..a9d34509 100644
--- a/compositor.cm
+++ b/compositor.cm
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ compositor.compile = function(config) {
   
   // Clear screen
   if (config.clear)
-    ctx.passes.push({type: 'clear', target: 'screen', color: config.clear})
+    push(ctx.passes, {type: 'clear', target: 'screen', color: config.clear})
   
   // Process each plane (supports both 'planes' and legacy 'layers' key)
   var planes = config.planes || config.layers || []
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ compositor.compile = function(config) {
 }
 
 function compile_imgui_layer(layer, ctx) {
-  ctx.passes.push({
+  push(ctx.passes, {
     type: 'imgui',
     target: 'screen',
     draw: layer.draw
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ function compile_plane(plane_config, ctx, group_effects) {
   // Add manual drawables
   if (plane_config.drawables) {
     for (var i = 0; i < length(plane_config.drawables); i++)
-      all_sprites.push(plane_config.drawables[i])
+      push(all_sprites, plane_config.drawables[i])
   }
   
   // Find which sprites belong to groups with effects
@@ -98,14 +98,14 @@ function compile_plane(plane_config, ctx, group_effects) {
       if (group_effects[gname]) {
         if (!effect_groups[gname])
           effect_groups[gname] = {sprites: [], effects: group_effects[gname].effects}
-        effect_groups[gname].sprites.push(s)
+        push(effect_groups[gname].sprites, s)
         assigned = true
         break  // Only assign to first matching effect group
       }
     }
     
     // Add to base sprites if not assigned to effect group and not mask-only
-    if (!assigned && !is_mask_only) base_sprites.push(s)
+    if (!assigned && !is_mask_only) push(base_sprites, s)
   }
   
   // Allocate plane target
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ function compile_plane(plane_config, ctx, group_effects) {
   
   // Clear plane
   if (plane_config.clear)
-    ctx.passes.push({type: 'clear', target: plane_target, color: plane_config.clear})
+    push(ctx.passes, {type: 'clear', target: plane_target, color: plane_config.clear})
   
   // Render each effect group to temp target, apply effects, composite back
   arrfor(array(effect_groups), gname => {
@@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ function compile_plane(plane_config, ctx, group_effects) {
     var group_target = ctx.alloc(res.width, res.height, gname + '_content')
     
     // Render group content
-    ctx.passes.push({
+    push(ctx.passes, {
       type: 'render',
       renderer: 'film2d',
       drawables: eg.sprites,
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ function compile_plane(plane_config, ctx, group_effects) {
     }
     
     // Composite result to plane
-    ctx.passes.push({
+    push(ctx.passes, {
       type: 'composite',
       source: current,
       dest: plane_target,
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ function compile_plane(plane_config, ctx, group_effects) {
   
   // Render base sprites (no effects)
   if (length(base_sprites) > 0) {
-    ctx.passes.push({
+    push(ctx.passes, {
       type: 'render',
       renderer: 'film2d',
       drawables: base_sprites,
@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ function compile_plane(plane_config, ctx, group_effects) {
   }
   
   // Composite plane to screen
-  ctx.passes.push({
+  push(ctx.passes, {
     type: 'blit_to_screen',
     source: plane_target,
     source_size: res,
@@ -185,7 +185,7 @@ function apply_effect(ctx, effect, input, size, camera, hint, current_plane, gro
     var blur2 = ctx.alloc(size.width, size.height, hint + '_blur2')
     
     // Threshold
-    ctx.passes.push({
+    push(ctx.passes, {
       type: 'shader_pass',
       shader: 'threshold',
       input: input,
@@ -197,13 +197,13 @@ function apply_effect(ctx, effect, input, size, camera, hint, current_plane, gro
     var blur_passes = effect.blur_passes || 2
     var blur_in = bright
     for (var p = 0; p < blur_passes; p++) {
-      ctx.passes.push({type: 'shader_pass', shader: 'blur', input: blur_in, output: blur1, uniforms: {direction: {x: 1, y: 0}, texel_size: {x: 1/size.width, y: 1/size.height}}})
-      ctx.passes.push({type: 'shader_pass', shader: 'blur', input: blur1, output: blur2, uniforms: {direction: {x: 0, y: 1}, texel_size: {x: 1/size.width, y: 1/size.height}}})
+      push(ctx.passes, {type: 'shader_pass', shader: 'blur', input: blur_in, output: blur1, uniforms: {direction: {x: 1, y: 0}, texel_size: {x: 1/size.width, y: 1/size.height}}})
+      push(ctx.passes, {type: 'shader_pass', shader: 'blur', input: blur1, output: blur2, uniforms: {direction: {x: 0, y: 1}, texel_size: {x: 1/size.width, y: 1/size.height}}})
       blur_in = blur2
     }
     
     // Composite bloom
-    ctx.passes.push({type: 'composite_textures', base: input, overlay: blur2, output: output, mode: 'add'})
+    push(ctx.passes, {type: 'composite_textures', base: input, overlay: blur2, output: output, mode: 'add'})
     
   } else if (effect.type == 'mask') {
     var mask_group = effect.mask_group
@@ -214,7 +214,7 @@ function apply_effect(ctx, effect, input, size, camera, hint, current_plane, gro
       var mask_target = ctx.alloc(size.width, size.height, hint + '_mask')
       
       // Render mask
-      ctx.passes.push({
+      push(ctx.passes, {
         type: 'render',
         renderer: 'film2d',
         drawables: mask_sprites,
@@ -225,7 +225,7 @@ function apply_effect(ctx, effect, input, size, camera, hint, current_plane, gro
       })
       
       // Apply mask
-      ctx.passes.push({
+      push(ctx.passes, {
         type: 'apply_mask',
         content: input,
         mask: mask_target,
@@ -235,11 +235,11 @@ function apply_effect(ctx, effect, input, size, camera, hint, current_plane, gro
       })
     } else {
       // No mask sprites, pass through
-      ctx.passes.push({type: 'blit', source: input, dest: output})
+      push(ctx.passes, {type: 'blit', source: input, dest: output})
     }
   } else {
     // Unknown effect, pass through
-    ctx.passes.push({type: 'blit', source: input, dest: output})
+    push(ctx.passes, {type: 'blit', source: input, dest: output})
   }
   
   return output
@@ -267,8 +267,8 @@ compositor.execute = function(plan) {
     
     if (pass.type == 'clear') {
       var target = resolve(pass.target)
-      commands.push({cmd: 'begin_render', target: target, clear: pass.color})
-      commands.push({cmd: 'end_render'})
+      push(commands, {cmd: 'begin_render', target: target, clear: pass.color})
+      push(commands, {cmd: 'end_render'})
       
     } else if (pass.type == 'render') {
       var result = film2d.render({
@@ -280,10 +280,10 @@ compositor.execute = function(plan) {
         clear: pass.clear
       }, backend)
       for (var c = 0; c < length(result.commands); c++)
-        commands.push(result.commands[c])
+        push(commands, result.commands[c])
         
     } else if (pass.type == 'shader_pass') {
-      commands.push({
+      push(commands, {
         cmd: 'shader_pass',
         shader: pass.shader,
         input: resolve(pass.input),
@@ -292,7 +292,7 @@ compositor.execute = function(plan) {
       })
       
     } else if (pass.type == 'composite_textures') {
-      commands.push({
+      push(commands, {
         cmd: 'composite_textures',
         base: resolve(pass.base),
         overlay: resolve(pass.overlay),
@@ -301,7 +301,7 @@ compositor.execute = function(plan) {
       })
       
     } else if (pass.type == 'apply_mask') {
-      commands.push({
+      push(commands, {
         cmd: 'apply_mask',
         content_texture: resolve(pass.content),
         mask_texture: resolve(pass.mask),
@@ -311,7 +311,7 @@ compositor.execute = function(plan) {
       })
       
     } else if (pass.type == 'composite') {
-      commands.push({
+      push(commands, {
         cmd: 'blit',
         texture: resolve(pass.source),
         target: resolve(pass.dest),
@@ -320,7 +320,7 @@ compositor.execute = function(plan) {
       
     } else if (pass.type == 'blit_to_screen') {
       var rect = _calc_presentation(pass.source_size, pass.dest_size, pass.presentation)
-      commands.push({
+      push(commands, {
         cmd: 'blit',
         texture: resolve(pass.source),
         target: 'screen',
@@ -330,14 +330,14 @@ compositor.execute = function(plan) {
     } else if (pass.type == 'blit') {
       var src = resolve(pass.source)
       var dst = resolve(pass.dest)
-      commands.push({
+      push(commands, {
         cmd: 'blit',
         texture: src,
         target: dst,
         dst_rect: {x: 0, y: 0, width: dst.width, height: dst.height}
       })
     } else if (pass.type == 'imgui') {
-      commands.push({
+      push(commands, {
         cmd: 'imgui',
         target: resolve(pass.target),
         draw: pass.draw
diff --git a/core.cm b/core.cm
index 5c99ea47..fd4bdbce 100644
--- a/core.cm
+++ b/core.cm
@@ -78,7 +78,29 @@ core.backend = function() {
 }
 // FPS tracking
 var _fps_samples = []
-var _fps_sample_count = 60
+var _fps_sample_count = 120
+var _fps_sample_sum = 0
+var _fps_sample_pos = 0
+
+function fps_add_sample(sample) {
+  var n = length(_fps_samples)
+  if (n < _fps_sample_count) {
+    push(_fps_samples, sample)
+    _fps_sample_sum += sample
+  } else {
+    var old = _fps_samples[_fps_sample_pos]
+    _fps_samples[_fps_sample_pos] = sample
+    _fps_sample_sum += sample - old
+    _fps_sample_pos++
+    if (_fps_sample_pos >= _fps_sample_count) _fps_sample_pos = 0
+  }
+}
+
+function fps_get_avg() {
+  var n = length(_fps_samples)
+  return n ? _fps_sample_sum / n : 0
+}
+
 var _current_fps = 0
 var _frame_time_ms = 0
 
@@ -162,7 +184,7 @@ function _main_loop() {
       // Handle both compositor result ({commands: [...]}) and fx_graph (graph object)
       if (render_result.commands) {
         if (_config.imgui || _config.editor) {
-          render_result.commands.push({
+          push(render_result.commands, {
             cmd: 'imgui',
             draw: function(ui) {
               if (_config.imgui) _config.imgui(ui)
@@ -188,19 +210,15 @@ function _main_loop() {
     }
   }
   
-  // Measure actual frame work time (excluding delay)
   var frame_end = time_mod.number()
   var actual_frame_time = frame_end - frame_start
-  
-  // Track FPS based on actual work time
+
   _frame_time_ms = actual_frame_time * 1000
-  _fps_samples.push(actual_frame_time)
-  if (length(_fps_samples) > _fps_sample_count) {
-    _fps_samples.shift()
-  }
-  var avg_frame_time = reduce(_fps_samples, function(a,b) { return a+b }) / length(_fps_samples)
+  fps_add_sample(actual_frame_time)
+
+  var avg_frame_time = fps_get_avg()
   _current_fps = avg_frame_time > 0 ? 1 / avg_frame_time : 0
-  
+
   // Schedule next frame
   var frame_time = 1 / _framerate
   var elapsed = frame_end - frame_start
diff --git a/debug_imgui.cm b/debug_imgui.cm
index 0cc75366..ad4d4832 100644
--- a/debug_imgui.cm
+++ b/debug_imgui.cm
@@ -143,29 +143,29 @@ function _render_node_summary(imgui, node) {
   var info = []
   
   if (node.pos) {
-    info.push("pos:(" + text(round(node.pos.x)) + "," + text(round(node.pos.y)) + ")")
+    push(info, "pos:(" + text(round(node.pos.x)) + "," + text(round(node.pos.y)) + ")")
   }
   
   if (node.width && node.height) {
-    info.push("size:" + text(node.width) + "x" + text(node.height))
+    push(info, "size:" + text(node.width) + "x" + text(node.height))
   }
   
   if (node.image) {
-    info.push("img:" + node.image)
+    push(info, "img:" + node.image)
   }
   
   if (node.text) {
     var t = node.text
     if (length(t) > 20) t = text(t, 0, 17) + "..."
-    info.push("\"" + t + "\"")
+    push(info, "\"" + t + "\"")
   }
   
   if (node.effects && length(node.effects) > 0) {
     var fx = []
     for (var i = 0; i < length(node.effects); i++) {
-      fx.push(node.effects[i].type)
+      push(fx, node.effects[i].type)
     }
-    info.push("fx:[" + text(fx, ",") + "]")
+    push(info, "fx:[" + text(fx, ",") + "]")
   }
   
   if (length(info) > 0) {
diff --git a/effects.cm b/effects.cm
index 38fd2632..9e445881 100644
--- a/effects.cm
+++ b/effects.cm
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ effects.register('bloom', {
 
     // Threshold extraction
     var thresh_target = ctx.alloc_target(size.width, size.height, 'bloom_thresh')
-    passes.push({
+    push(passes, {
       type: 'shader',
       shader: 'threshold',
       input: input,
@@ -55,14 +55,14 @@ effects.register('bloom', {
     var blur_count = params.blur_passes != null ? params.blur_passes : 3
 
     for (var i = 0; i < blur_count; i++) {
-      passes.push({
+      push(passes, {
         type: 'shader',
         shader: 'blur',
         input: blur_src,
         output: blur_a,
         uniforms: {direction: {x: 2, y: 0}, texel_size: texel}
       })
-      passes.push({
+      push(passes, {
         type: 'shader',
         shader: 'blur',
         input: blur_a,
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ effects.register('bloom', {
     }
 
     // Additive composite
-    passes.push({
+    push(passes, {
       type: 'composite',
       base: input,
       overlay: blur_src,
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ effects.register('mask', {
 
     // Render mask source to target
     var mask_target = ctx.alloc_target(size.width, size.height, 'mask_src')
-    passes.push({
+    push(passes, {
       type: 'render_subtree',
       root: mask_source,
       output: mask_target,
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ effects.register('mask', {
     })
 
     // Apply mask shader
-    passes.push({
+    push(passes, {
       type: 'shader',
       shader: 'mask',
       inputs: [input, mask_target],
@@ -190,14 +190,14 @@ effects.register('blur', {
     var blur_count = params.passes != null ? params.passes : 2
 
     for (var i = 0; i < blur_count; i++) {
-      passes.push({
+      push(passes, {
         type: 'shader',
         shader: 'blur',
         input: src,
         output: blur_a,
         uniforms: {direction: {x: 2, y: 0}, texel_size: texel}
       })
-      passes.push({
+      push(passes, {
         type: 'shader',
         shader: 'blur',
         input: blur_a,
@@ -208,7 +208,7 @@ effects.register('blur', {
     }
 
     // Final blit to output
-    passes.push({type: 'blit', source: src, dest: output})
+    push(passes, {type: 'blit', source: src, dest: output})
     return passes
   }
 })
diff --git a/examples/bunnymark/main.ce b/examples/bunnymark/main.ce
index e2cac960..bb970948 100644
--- a/examples/bunnymark/main.ce
+++ b/examples/bunnymark/main.ce
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ var bunnies = []
 
 // Start with some initial bunnies:
 for (var i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
-  bunnies.push({
+  push(bunnies, {
     x: random.random() * config.width,
     y: random.random() * config.height,
     vx: (random.random() * 300) - 150,
@@ -22,22 +22,12 @@ for (var i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
   })
 }
 
-var fpsSamples = []
-var fpsAvg = 0
-
 this.update = function(dt) {
-  // Compute FPS average over the last 60 frames:
-  var currentFPS = 1 / dt
-  fpsSamples.push(currentFPS)
-  if (length(fpsSamples) > 60) fpsSamples.shift()
-  var sum = reduce(fpsSamples, function(a,b) { return a + b })
-  fpsAvg = sum / length(fpsSamples)
-
   // If left mouse is down, spawn some more bunnies:
   var mouse = input.mousestate()
   if (mouse.left)
     for (var i = 0; i < 50; i++) {
-      bunnies.push({
+      push(bunnies, {
         x: mouse.x,
         y: mouse.y,
         vx: (random.random() * 300) - 150,
@@ -63,7 +53,4 @@ this.update = function(dt) {
 
 this.hud = function() {
   draw.images(bunnyTex, bunnies)
-
-  var msg = 'FPS: ' + fpsAvg.toFixed(2) + '   Bunnies: ' + length(bunnies)
-  draw.text(msg, {x:0, y:0, width:config.width, height:40}, null, 0, color.white, 0)
 }
diff --git a/examples/chess/grid.cm b/examples/chess/grid.cm
index d7c948c2..bd72fa48 100644
--- a/examples/chess/grid.cm
+++ b/examples/chess/grid.cm
@@ -26,15 +26,13 @@ var grid_prototype = {
 
   // add an entity into a cell
   add(entity, pos) {
-    this.cell(pos.x, pos.y).push(entity);
+    push(this.cell(pos.x, pos.y), entity);
     entity.coord = array(pos);
   },
 
   // remove an entity from a cell
   remove(entity, pos) {
-    def c = this.cell(pos.x, pos.y);
-    def i = search(c, entity);
-    if (i != null) c.splice(i, 1);
+    this.cells[pos.y][pos.x] = filter(this.cells[pos.y][pos.x], x => x != entity)
   },
 
   // bounds check
diff --git a/examples/chess/pieces.cm b/examples/chess/pieces.cm
index 8aa50140..e79c4dea 100644
--- a/examples/chess/pieces.cm
+++ b/examples/chess/pieces.cm
@@ -1,28 +1,27 @@
 /* pieces.js – simple data holders + starting layout */
 function Piece(kind, colour) {
-  this.kind   = kind;                 // "pawn" etc.
-  this.colour = colour;               // "white"/"black"
-  this.sprite = colour + '_' + kind;  // for draw2d.image
-  this.captured = false;
-  this.coord    = [0,0];
+  var newpiece = { kind, colour}
+
+  newpiece.sprite = colour + '_' + kind;  // for draw2d.image
+  newpiece.captured = false;
+  newpiece.coord    = [0,0];
+
+  return newpiece
 }
-Piece.prototype.toString = function () {
-  return character(this.colour) + upper(character(this.kind));
-};
 
 function startingPosition(grid) {
   var W = 'white', B = 'black', x;
 
   // pawns
   for (x = 0; x < 8; x++) {
-    grid.add(new Piece('pawn', W), [x, 6]);
-    grid.add(new Piece('pawn', B), [x, 1]);
+    grid.add(Piece('pawn', W), [x, 6]);
+    grid.add(Piece('pawn', B), [x, 1]);
   }
   // major pieces
   var back = ['rook','knight','bishop','queen','king','bishop','knight','rook'];
   for (x = 0; x < 8; x++) {
-    grid.add(new Piece(back[x], W), [x, 7]);
-    grid.add(new Piece(back[x], B), [x, 0]);
+    grid.add(Piece(back[x], W), [x, 7]);
+    grid.add(Piece(back[x], B), [x, 0]);
   }
 }
 
diff --git a/examples/snake/main.ce b/examples/snake/main.ce
index 03a92eab..09e32d9f 100644
--- a/examples/snake/main.ce
+++ b/examples/snake/main.ce
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ this.update = function(dt) {
 
   // Eat apple?
   if (head.x == apple.x && head.y == apple.y) spawnApple()
-  else snake.pop()
+  else pop(snake)
 }
 
 this.hud = function() {
diff --git a/examples/tetris/main.ce b/examples/tetris/main.ce
index 8955a83a..7a376809 100644
--- a/examples/tetris/main.ce
+++ b/examples/tetris/main.ce
@@ -58,8 +58,8 @@ function initBoard() {
   board = []
   for (var r=0; r<ROWS; r++) {
     var row = []
-    for (var c=0; c<COLS; c++) row.push(0)
-    board.push(row)
+    for (var c=0; c<COLS; c++) push(row, 0)
+    push(board, row)
   }
 }
 initBoard()
@@ -119,10 +119,10 @@ function clearLines() {
     if (every(board[r], cell => cell)) {
       lines++
       // remove row
-      board.splice(r,1)
+      board = array(array(board, 0, r), array(board, r+1))
       // add empty row on top
       var newRow = []
-      for (var c=0; c<COLS; c++) newRow.push(0)
+      for (var c=0; c<COLS; c++) push(newRow, 0)
       board.unshift(newRow)
     } else {
       r--
diff --git a/film2d.cm b/film2d.cm
index 5a4fc808..0cb7d97d 100644
--- a/film2d.cm
+++ b/film2d.cm
@@ -118,14 +118,14 @@ film2d.register = function(drawable) {
   // Index by plane
   var plane = drawable.plane || 'default'
   if (!plane_index[plane]) plane_index[plane] = []
-  plane_index[plane].push(id)
+    push(plane_index[plane], id)
   
   // Index by groups (effect routing only)
   var groups = drawable.groups || []
   for (var i = 0; i < length(groups); i++) {
     var g = groups[i]
     if (!group_index[g]) group_index[g] = []
-    group_index[g].push(id)
+    push(group_index[g], id)
   }
   
   return id
@@ -140,7 +140,8 @@ film2d.unregister = function(id) {
   var plane = drawable.plane || 'default'
   if (plane_index[plane]) {
     var idx = find(plane_index[plane], id_str)
-    if (idx != null) plane_index[plane].splice(idx, 1)
+    if (idx != null)
+      plane_index[plane] = array(array(plane_index[plane], 0, idx), array(plane_index[plane], idx+1))
   }
   
   // Remove from group indices
@@ -149,7 +150,8 @@ film2d.unregister = function(id) {
     var g = groups[i]
     if (group_index[g]) {
       var idx = find(group_index[g], id_str)
-      if (idx != null) group_index[g].splice(idx, 1)
+      if (idx != null)
+        group_index[g] = array(array(group_index[g], 0, idx), array(group_index[g], idx+1))
     }
   }
   
@@ -159,13 +161,14 @@ film2d.unregister = function(id) {
 film2d.index_group = function(id, group) {
   if (!group_index[group]) group_index[group] = []
   if (search(group_index[group], text(id)) == null)
-    group_index[group].push(text(id))
+    push(group_index[group], text(id))
 }
 
 film2d.unindex_group = function(id, group) {
   if (!group_index[group]) return
   var idx = search(group_index[group], text(id))
-  if (idx != null) group_index[group].splice(idx, 1)
+  if (idx != null)
+    group_index[group] = array(array(group_index[group], 0, idx), array(group_index[group], idx+1))
 }
 
 film2d.reindex = function(id, old_groups, new_groups) {
@@ -192,9 +195,9 @@ film2d.query = function(selector) {
         // If also filtering by group, check membership
         if (selector.group) {
           var groups = d.groups || []
-          if (search(groups, selector.group) != null) result.push(d)
+          if (search(groups, selector.group) != null) push(result, d)
         } else {
-          result.push(d)
+          push(result, d)
         }
       }
     }
@@ -206,7 +209,7 @@ film2d.query = function(selector) {
     var ids = group_index[selector.group] || []
     for (var i = 0; i < length(ids); i++) {
       var d = registry[ids[i]]
-      if (d && d.visible != false) result.push(d)
+      if (d && d.visible != false) push(result, d)
     }
     return result
   }
@@ -219,7 +222,7 @@ film2d.query = function(selector) {
         if (!seen[ids[i]]) {
           seen[ids[i]] = true
           var d = registry[ids[i]]
-          if (d && d.visible != false) result.push(d)
+          if (d && d.visible != false) push(result, d)
         }
       }
     }
@@ -242,7 +245,7 @@ film2d.get_groups = function(id) {
 film2d.all_groups = function() {
   var groups = []
   arrfor(array(group_index), g => {
-    if (length(group_index[g]) > 0) groups.push(g)
+    if (length(group_index[g]) > 0) push(groups, g)
   })
   return groups
 }
@@ -282,7 +285,7 @@ film2d.render = function(params, render_backend) {
       b = []
       buckets[layer_key] = b
     }
-    b.push(d)
+    push(b, d)
   }
 
   // Sort layers numerically (keys are text)
@@ -305,32 +308,32 @@ film2d.render = function(params, render_backend) {
       if (!y_down) b = reverse(b)   // y_up => smaller y draws later => reverse
     }
 
-    for (var j = 0; j < length(b); j++) sorted_drawables.push(b[j])
+    for (var j = 0; j < length(b); j++) push(sorted_drawables, b[j])
   }
 
   drawables = sorted_drawables
 
   var commands = []
-  commands.push({ cmd: "begin_render", target: target, clear: clear_color, target_size: target_size })
-  commands.push({ cmd: "set_camera", camera: camera })
+  push(commands, { cmd: "begin_render", target: target, clear: clear_color, target_size: target_size })
+  push(commands, { cmd: "set_camera", camera: camera })
 
   var batches = _batch_drawables(drawables)
 
   for (var i = 0; i < length(batches); i++) {
     var batch = batches[i]
     if (batch.type == "sprite_batch")
-      commands.push({ cmd: "draw_batch", batch_type: "sprites", geometry: { sprites: batch.sprites }, texture: batch.texture, material: batch.material })
+      push(commands, { cmd: "draw_batch", batch_type: "sprites", geometry: { sprites: batch.sprites }, texture: batch.texture, material: batch.material })
     else if (batch.type == "mesh2d_batch")
-      commands.push({ cmd: "draw_mesh2d", meshes: batch.meshes, texture: batch.texture, material: batch.material })
+      push(commands, { cmd: "draw_mesh2d", meshes: batch.meshes, texture: batch.texture, material: batch.material })
     else if (batch.type == "text")
-      commands.push({ cmd: "draw_text", drawable: batch.drawable })
+      push(commands, { cmd: "draw_text", drawable: batch.drawable })
     else if (batch.type == "texture_ref")
-      commands.push({ cmd: "draw_texture_ref", drawable: batch.drawable })
+      push(commands, { cmd: "draw_texture_ref", drawable: batch.drawable })
     else if (batch.type == "shape")
-      commands.push({ cmd: "draw_shape", drawable: batch.drawable })
+      push(commands, { cmd: "draw_shape", drawable: batch.drawable })
   }
 
-  commands.push({ cmd: "end_render" })
+  push(commands, { cmd: "end_render" })
   return { commands: commands }
 }
 
@@ -350,9 +353,9 @@ function _batch_drawables(drawables) {
       var mat = d.material || {blend: 'alpha', sampler: d.filter || 'nearest'}
       
       if (current && current.type == 'sprite_batch' && current.texture == tex && _mat_eq(current.material, mat)) {
-        current.sprites.push(d)
+        push(current.sprites, d)
       } else {
-        if (current) batches.push(current)
+        if (current) push(batches, current)
         current = {type: 'sprite_batch', texture: tex, material: mat, sprites: [d]}
       }
     } else if (d.type == 'particles') {
@@ -379,9 +382,9 @@ function _batch_drawables(drawables) {
         }
         
         if (current && current.type == 'sprite_batch' && current.texture == tex && _mat_eq(current.material, mat)) {
-          current.sprites.push(sprite)
+          push(current.sprites, sprite)
         } else {
-          if (current) batches.push(current)
+          if (current) push(batches, current)
           current = {type: 'sprite_batch', texture: tex, material: mat, sprites: [sprite]}
         }
       }
@@ -422,9 +425,9 @@ function _batch_drawables(drawables) {
           var tex = img
           var mat = default_mat
           if (current && current.type == 'sprite_batch' && current.texture == tex && _mat_eq(current.material, mat)) {
-            current.sprites.push(sprite)
+            push(current.sprites, sprite)
           } else {
-            if (current) batches.push(current)
+            if (current) push(batches, current)
             current = {type: 'sprite_batch', texture: tex, material: mat, sprites: [sprite]}
           }
         }
@@ -435,28 +438,28 @@ function _batch_drawables(drawables) {
       var mat = d.material || {blend: d.blend || 'alpha', sampler: d.filter || 'linear'}
       
       if (current && current.type == 'mesh2d_batch' && current.texture == tex && _mat_eq(current.material, mat)) {
-        current.meshes.push(d)
+        push(current.meshes, d)
       } else {
-        if (current) batches.push(current)
+        if (current) push(batches, current)
         current = {type: 'mesh2d_batch', texture: tex, material: mat, meshes: [d]}
       }
     } else if (d.type == 'shape') {
       // Shapes are rendered individually (each has unique SDF params)
       if (current) {
-        batches.push(current)
+        push(batches, current)
         current = null
       }
-      batches.push({type: 'shape', drawable: d})
+      push(batches, {type: 'shape', drawable: d})
     } else {
       if (current) {
-        batches.push(current)
+        push(batches, current)
         current = null
       }
-      batches.push({type: d.type, drawable: d})
+      push(batches, {type: d.type, drawable: d})
     }
   }
   
-  if (current) batches.push(current)
+  if (current) push(batches, current)
   return batches
 }
 
diff --git a/fx_graph.cm b/fx_graph.cm
index 47e0310d..c87584fb 100644
--- a/fx_graph.cm
+++ b/fx_graph.cm
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ fx_graph.add_node = function(type, params) {
     params: params,
     output: {node_id: this.next_id - 1, slot: 'output'}
   }
-  this.nodes.push(node)
+  push(this.nodes, node)
   return node
 }
 
@@ -203,7 +203,7 @@ NODE_EXECUTORS.composite = function(params, backend) {
   
   // Emit composite_textures command (handled outside render pass)
   var commands = []
-  commands.push({
+  push(commands, {
     cmd: 'composite_textures',
     base: base.target,
     overlay: overlay.target,
@@ -233,7 +233,7 @@ NODE_EXECUTORS.mask = function(params, backend) {
   
   // Emit apply_mask command (handled via shader pass outside render pass)
   var commands = []
-  commands.push({
+  push(commands, {
     cmd: 'apply_mask',
     content_texture: content.target,
     mask_texture: mask.target,
@@ -264,12 +264,12 @@ NODE_EXECUTORS.clip_rect = function(params, backend) {
     }
   }
   
-  commands.splice(insert_idx, 0, {cmd: 'scissor', rect: rect})
+  commands = array(array(array(commands, 0, insert_idx), [{cmd: 'scissor', rect: rect}]), array(commands, insert_idx))
   
   // Add scissor reset before end_render
   for (var i = length(commands) - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
     if (commands[i].cmd == 'end_render') {
-      commands.splice(i, 0, {cmd: 'scissor', rect: null})
+      commands = array(array(array(commands, 0, i), [{cmd: 'scissor', rect:null}]) ,array(commands, i+1))
       break
     }
   }
@@ -305,7 +305,7 @@ NODE_EXECUTORS.blit = function(params, backend) {
   }
   
   var commands = []
-  commands.push({
+  push(commands, {
     cmd: 'blit',
     texture: src_target,
     target: target,
@@ -321,7 +321,7 @@ NODE_EXECUTORS.present = function(params, backend) {
   var input = params.input
   
   var commands = []
-  commands.push({cmd: 'present'})
+  push(commands, {cmd: 'present'})
   
   return {commands: commands}
 }
@@ -350,7 +350,7 @@ NODE_EXECUTORS.shader_pass = function(params, backend) {
   }
   
   var commands = []
-  commands.push({
+  push(commands, {
     cmd: 'shader_pass',
     shader: shader,
     input: src,
diff --git a/gestures.cm b/gestures.cm
index 4e877111..1c431d03 100644
--- a/gestures.cm
+++ b/gestures.cm
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ gesture.on_input = function(action_id, action) {
     } else if (touchCount == 2) {
       // Two touches - potential pinch
       this.gestureState = 'multi'
-      var fingers = object.values(this.touches)
+      var fingers = array(array(this.touches), k => this.touches[k])
       this.startDist = this.dist(fingers[0], fingers[1])
     }
   }
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ gesture.on_input = function(action_id, action) {
       
       if (touchCount == 2 && this.gestureState == 'multi') {
         // Check for pinch gesture
-        var fingers = object.values(this.touches)
+        var fingers = array(array(this.touches), k => this.touches[k])
         var currentDist = this.dist(fingers[0], fingers[1])
         var d = currentDist - this.startDist
         
diff --git a/graphics.cm b/graphics.cm
index c92d4a7e..d718c520 100644
--- a/graphics.cm
+++ b/graphics.cm
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ function create_image(path){
   try{
     def bytes = io.slurp(path);
 
-    var ext = array(path, '.').pop()
+    var ext = pop(array(path, '.'))
     var raw = decode_image(bytes, ext);
     
     /* ── Case A: single surface (from make_texture) ────────────── */
@@ -357,7 +357,7 @@ graphics.texture = function texture(path) {
 }
 
 graphics.tex_hotreload = function tex_hotreload(file) {
-  var basename = array(array(file, '/').pop(), '.')[0]
+  var basename = array(pop(array(file, '/')), '.')[0]
   
   // Check if this basename exists in our cache
   if (!(basename in cache)) return
diff --git a/input.cm b/input.cm
index 98bc926e..7e05aa9d 100644
--- a/input.cm
+++ b/input.cm
@@ -93,13 +93,13 @@ function create_user(index, config) {
     
     // Push entity onto control stack
     push: function(entity) {
-      this.control_stack.push(entity)
+      push(this.control_stack, entity)
     },
     
     // Pop from control stack
     pop: function() {
       if (length(this.control_stack) > 1) {
-        return this.control_stack.pop()
+        return pop(this.control_stack)
       }
       return null
     },
@@ -166,7 +166,7 @@ function pick_user(canon) {
         
         user.active_device = canon.device_id
         if (find(user.paired_devices, canon.device_id) == null) {
-          user.paired_devices.push(canon.device_id)
+          push(user.paired_devices, canon.device_id)
         }
       }
     }
@@ -207,7 +207,7 @@ function configure(opts) {
   // Create users
   _users = []
   for (var i = 0; i < _config.max_users; i++) {
-    _users.push(create_user(i, _config))
+    push(_users, create_user(i, _config))
   }
   
   _initialized = true
diff --git a/input/bindings.cm b/input/bindings.cm
index cc44e141..7aac9be3 100644
--- a/input/bindings.cm
+++ b/input/bindings.cm
@@ -135,7 +135,8 @@ function make(defaults, display_names) {
     // Remove from other actions
     arrfor(array(this.action_map), act => {
       var idx = search(this.action_map[act], new_control)
-      if (idx >= 0) this.action_map[act].splice(idx, 1)
+      if (idx >= 0)
+        this.action_map[act] = array(array(this.action_map[act], 0, idx), array(this.action_map[act], idx+1))
     })
     
     // Clear existing bindings for this device kind
@@ -143,9 +144,8 @@ function make(defaults, display_names) {
     for (var i = length(target) - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
       var existing_kind = starts_with(target[i], 'gamepad_') ? 'gamepad' :
                           starts_with(target[i], 'swipe_') ? 'touch' : 'keyboard'
-      if (existing_kind == device_kind) {
-        target.splice(i, 1)
-      }
+      if (existing_kind == device_kind)
+        this.action_map[action] = array(array(this.action_map[action], 0, i), array(this.action_map[action], i+1))
     }
     
     // Add new binding
diff --git a/input/router.cm b/input/router.cm
index 1189ffbb..606c4b40 100644
--- a/input/router.cm
+++ b/input/router.cm
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ function gesture_stage(config) {
         
         // Only process gamepad touchpad events
         if (ev.control != 'gamepad_touchpad') {
-          output.push(ev)
+          push(output, ev)
           continue
         }
         
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ function gesture_stage(config) {
               var d = currentDist - start_dist
               
               if (Math.abs(d) >= pinch_th / 100) {
-                output.push({
+                push(output, {
                   kind: 'gesture',
                   device_id: ev.device_id,
                   control: d > 0 ? 'pinch_out' : 'pinch_in',
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ function gesture_stage(config) {
                     ? (dx > 0 ? 'swipe_right' : 'swipe_left')
                     : (dy > 0 ? 'swipe_down' : 'swipe_up')
                   
-                  output.push({
+                  push(output, {
                     kind: 'gesture',
                     device_id: ev.device_id,
                     control: dir,
@@ -139,18 +139,18 @@ function emacs_stage() {
         
         // Only process keyboard button events
         if (ev.device_id != 'kbm' || ev.kind != 'button' || !ev.pressed) {
-          output.push(ev)
+          push(output, ev)
           continue
         }
         
         if (find(valid_emacs_keys, ev.control) == null) {
-          output.push(ev)
+          push(output, ev)
           continue
         }
         
         // Only process if we have modifiers OR waiting for chord
         if (!ev.mods?.ctrl && !ev.mods?.alt && !prefix) {
-          output.push(ev)
+          push(output, ev)
           continue
         }
         
@@ -174,7 +174,7 @@ function emacs_stage() {
         if (prefix) {
           var chord = prefix + " " + notation
           prefix = null
-          output.push({
+          push(output, {
             kind: 'chord',
             device_id: ev.device_id,
             control: chord,
@@ -183,7 +183,7 @@ function emacs_stage() {
             time: ev.time
           })
         } else {
-          output.push({
+          push(output, {
             kind: 'chord',
             device_id: ev.device_id,
             control: notation,
@@ -213,14 +213,14 @@ function action_stage(bindings) {
         
         // Pass through non-button events
         if (ev.kind != 'button' && ev.kind != 'chord' && ev.kind != 'gesture') {
-          output.push(ev)
+          push(output, ev)
           continue
         }
         
         var actions = bindings.get_actions(ev.control)
         
         if (length(actions) == 0) {
-          output.push(ev)
+          push(output, ev)
           continue
         }
         
@@ -230,7 +230,7 @@ function action_stage(bindings) {
           if (ev.pressed) down[action] = true
           else if (ev.released) down[action] = false
           
-          output.push({
+          push(output, {
             kind: 'action',
             device_id: ev.device_id,
             control: action,
@@ -277,16 +277,16 @@ function make(user, config) {
   var action = null
   
   if (config.gestures != false) {
-    stages.push(gesture_stage(config))
+    push(stages, gesture_stage(config))
   }
   
   if (config.emacs != false) {
-    stages.push(emacs_stage())
+    push(stages, emacs_stage())
   }
   
   action = action_stage(user.bindings)
-  stages.push(action)
-  stages.push(delivery_stage(user))
+  push(stages, action)
+  push(stages, delivery_stage(user))
   
   return {
     stages: stages,
diff --git a/line2d.cm b/line2d.cm
index 45ac4af1..c3f533db 100644
--- a/line2d.cm
+++ b/line2d.cm
@@ -81,9 +81,9 @@ function build_polyline_mesh(line) {
   for (var i = 0; i < length(points); i++) {
     var p = points[i]
     if (points_space == 'local') {
-      pts.push({x: p.x + pos.x, y: p.y + pos.y})
+      push(pts, {x: p.x + pos.x, y: p.y + pos.y})
     } else {
-      pts.push({x: p.x, y: p.y})
+      push(pts, {x: p.x, y: p.y})
     }
   }
   
@@ -92,7 +92,7 @@ function build_polyline_mesh(line) {
   for (var i = 1; i < length(pts); i++) {
     var dx = pts[i].x - pts[i-1].x
     var dy = pts[i].y - pts[i-1].y
-    cumulative.push(cumulative[i-1] + math.sqrt(dx*dx + dy*dy))
+    push(cumulative, cumulative[i-1] + math.sqrt(dx*dx + dy*dy))
   }
   var total_length = cumulative[length(cumulative) - 1]
   
@@ -179,7 +179,7 @@ function build_polyline_mesh(line) {
       n.y = dx
     }
     
-    normals.push(n)
+    push(normals, n)
   }
   
   // Generate vertices (2 per point - left and right of line)
@@ -190,7 +190,7 @@ function build_polyline_mesh(line) {
     var u = get_u(i)
     
     // Left vertex (v=0)
-    verts.push({
+    push(verts, {
       x: p.x + n.x * w,
       y: p.y + n.y * w,
       u: u,
@@ -199,7 +199,7 @@ function build_polyline_mesh(line) {
     })
     
     // Right vertex (v=1)
-    verts.push({
+    push(verts, {
       x: p.x - n.x * w,
       y: p.y - n.y * w,
       u: u,
@@ -212,24 +212,24 @@ function build_polyline_mesh(line) {
   for (var i = 0; i < length(pts) - 1; i++) {
     var base = i * 2
     // First triangle
-    indices.push(base + 0)
-    indices.push(base + 1)
-    indices.push(base + 2)
+    push(indices, base + 0)
+    push(indices, base + 1)
+    push(indices, base + 2)
     // Second triangle
-    indices.push(base + 1)
-    indices.push(base + 3)
-    indices.push(base + 2)
+    push(indices, base + 1)
+    push(indices, base + 3)
+    push(indices, base + 2)
   }
   
   // Handle closed path
   if (closed && length(pts) > 2) {
     var last = (length(pts) - 1) * 2
-    indices.push(last + 0)
-    indices.push(last + 1)
-    indices.push(0)
-    indices.push(last + 1)
-    indices.push(1)
-    indices.push(0)
+    push(indices, last + 0)
+    push(indices, last + 1)
+    push(indices, 0)
+    push(indices, last + 1)
+    push(indices, 1)
+    push(indices, 0)
   }
   
   // Add round caps if requested
@@ -259,7 +259,7 @@ function add_round_cap(verts, indices, p, n, width, u, v_offset, v_scale, is_sta
   var dy = is_start ? n.x : -n.x
   
   // Center vertex
-  verts.push({
+  push(verts, {
     x: p.x,
     y: p.y,
     u: u,
@@ -274,7 +274,7 @@ function add_round_cap(verts, indices, p, n, width, u, v_offset, v_scale, is_sta
     var cx = math.cosine(angle)
     var cy = math.sine(angle)
     
-    verts.push({
+    push(verts, {
       x: p.x + cx * w,
       y: p.y + cy * w,
       u: u,
@@ -285,9 +285,9 @@ function add_round_cap(verts, indices, p, n, width, u, v_offset, v_scale, is_sta
   
   // Fan triangles
   for (var i = 0; i < segments; i++) {
-    indices.push(base_idx)
-    indices.push(base_idx + 1 + i)
-    indices.push(base_idx + 2 + i)
+    push(indices, base_idx)
+    push(indices, base_idx + 1 + i)
+    push(indices, base_idx + 2 + i)
   }
 }
 
@@ -307,17 +307,17 @@ function add_square_cap(verts, indices, p, n, width, u, v_offset, v_scale, is_st
   var ey = p.y + dy * ext
   
   // Four corners of the cap
-  verts.push({x: p.x + n.x * w, y: p.y + n.y * w, u: u, v: v_offset, r: 1, g: 1, b: 1, a: 1})
-  verts.push({x: p.x - n.x * w, y: p.y - n.y * w, u: u, v: v_scale + v_offset, r: 1, g: 1, b: 1, a: 1})
-  verts.push({x: ex + n.x * w, y: ey + n.y * w, u: u, v: v_offset, r: 1, g: 1, b: 1, a: 1})
-  verts.push({x: ex - n.x * w, y: ey - n.y * w, u: u, v: v_scale + v_offset, r: 1, g: 1, b: 1, a: 1})
+  push(verts, {x: p.x + n.x * w, y: p.y + n.y * w, u: u, v: v_offset, r: 1, g: 1, b: 1, a: 1})
+  push(verts, {x: p.x - n.x * w, y: p.y - n.y * w, u: u, v: v_scale + v_offset, r: 1, g: 1, b: 1, a: 1})
+  push(verts, {x: ex + n.x * w, y: ey + n.y * w, u: u, v: v_offset, r: 1, g: 1, b: 1, a: 1})
+  push(verts, {x: ex - n.x * w, y: ey - n.y * w, u: u, v: v_scale + v_offset, r: 1, g: 1, b: 1, a: 1})
   
-  indices.push(base_idx + 0)
-  indices.push(base_idx + 1)
-  indices.push(base_idx + 2)
-  indices.push(base_idx + 1)
-  indices.push(base_idx + 3)
-  indices.push(base_idx + 2)
+  push(indices, base_idx + 0)
+  push(indices, base_idx + 1)
+  push(indices, base_idx + 2)
+  push(indices, base_idx + 1)
+  push(indices, base_idx + 3)
+  push(indices, base_idx + 2)
 }
 
 var defaults = {
diff --git a/particles2d.cm b/particles2d.cm
index 101499e0..a392c323 100644
--- a/particles2d.cm
+++ b/particles2d.cm
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ var particles2d_proto = {
 var emitters = {
   // Spawn a particle for an emitter
   spawn: function(emitter) {
-    emitter.particles.push({
+    push(emitter.particles, {
       pos: {
         x: emitter.pos.x + (random() - 0.5) * emitter.spawn_area.width,
         y: emitter.pos.y + (random() - 0.5) * emitter.spawn_area.height
@@ -76,17 +76,13 @@ var emitters = {
         alpha = 1 - (p.time - p.life * 0.7) / (p.life * 0.3)
       }
       p.color.a = alpha
-      
-      // Remove dead particles
-      if (p.time >= p.life) {
-        emitter.particles.splice(i, 1)
-      }
     }
+
+    emitter.particles = filter(emitter.particles, p => p.time < p.life)
     
     // Sync to film2d if handle provided
-    if (emitter.handle) {
+    if (emitter.handle)
       emitter.handle.particles = emitter.particles
-    }
   },
   
   // Create an emitter config
diff --git a/playdate.cm b/playdate.cm
index 0e53bec9..cbc60920 100644
--- a/playdate.cm
+++ b/playdate.cm
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ PlaydateBackend.prototype.get_or_create_target = function(width, height, key) {
     key: key
   }
   
-  this.target_pool[pool_key].push(target)
+  push(this.target_pool[pool_key], target)
   return target
 }
 
diff --git a/rasterize.cm b/rasterize.cm
index f6e98abe..d85f3621 100644
--- a/rasterize.cm
+++ b/rasterize.cm
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ rasterize.ellipse = function ellipse(pos, radii, opt) {
         within_wedge(dx+1, dy, start, end, full_circle)
 
       if (last || !next_in_ring) {
-        strips.push({
+        push(strips, {
           x: run_start,
           y: y_screen,
           width: (cx + dx) - run_start + 1,
@@ -176,7 +176,7 @@ rasterize.round_rect = function round_rect(rect, radius, thickness) {
     var w = dx_out - dx_in
     if (w <= 0) continue
 
-    strips.push(
+    push(strips,
       { x:cx_l - dx_out,      y:cy_t - dy, width:w, height:1 },
       { x:cx_r + dx_in + 1,   y:cy_t - dy, width:w, height:1 },
       { x:cx_l - dx_out,      y:cy_b + dy, width:w, height:1 },
@@ -209,7 +209,7 @@ rasterize.fill_round_rect = function fill_round_rect(rect, radius) {
     var dx = floor(math.sqrt(radius * radius - dy * dy))
     var w  = (dx << 1) + 1
 
-    caps.push(
+    push(caps, 
       { x:cx_l - dx, y:cy_t - dy, width:w, height:1 },
       { x:cx_r - dx, y:cy_t - dy, width:w, height:1 },
       { x:cx_l - dx, y:cy_b + dy, width:w, height:1 },
diff --git a/resources.cm b/resources.cm
index 4ba07397..906f7cdf 100644
--- a/resources.cm
+++ b/resources.cm
@@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ function read_ignore(dir) {
     arrfor(lines, function(line) {
       line = trim(line)
       if (!line || starts_with(line, '#')) return
-      patterns.push(line)
+      push(patterns, line)
     })
   }
   return patterns
@@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ Resources.getAllFiles = function(dir = "") {
       if (!st.filesize) return
       var ext = getExtension(f)
       if (!isRecognizedExtension(ext)) return
-      results.push(fullPath)
+      push(results, fullPath)
     } catch(e) {}
   })
   return results
diff --git a/sdl_gpu.cm b/sdl_gpu.cm
index e8faa215..f17940f8 100644
--- a/sdl_gpu.cm
+++ b/sdl_gpu.cm
@@ -700,7 +700,7 @@ function _load_image_file(path) {
   var decoded
   if (!bytes) return null
   
-  var ext = lower(array(path, '.').pop())
+  var ext = lower(pop(array(path, '.')))
   var surface = null
   
   switch (ext) {
@@ -822,7 +822,7 @@ sdl_gpu.get_or_create_target = function(width, height, key) {
     key: key
   }
   
-  _target_pool[pool_key].push(target)
+  push(_target_pool[pool_key], target)
   return target
 }
 
@@ -1202,23 +1202,23 @@ function _execute_commands(commands, window_size) {
         break
         
       case 'draw_batch':
-        pending_draws.push(cmd)
+        push(pending_draws, cmd)
         break
 
       case 'draw_text':
-        pending_draws.push(cmd)
+        push(pending_draws, cmd)
         break
 
       case 'draw_texture_ref':
-        pending_draws.push(cmd)
+        push(pending_draws, cmd)
         break
 
       case 'draw_shape':
-        pending_draws.push(cmd)
+        push(pending_draws, cmd)
         break
 
       case 'draw_mesh2d':
-        pending_draws.push(cmd)
+        push(pending_draws, cmd)
         break
 
       case 'blit':
@@ -2219,7 +2219,7 @@ function _do_shader_pass(cmd_buffer, cmd, get_swapchain_tex) {
   var samplers = [{texture: input.texture, sampler: _sampler_linear}]
   if (cmd.extra_inputs) {
     arrfor(cmd.extra_inputs, function(extra) {
-      samplers.push({texture: extra.texture, sampler: _sampler_linear})
+      push(samplers, {texture: extra.texture, sampler: _sampler_linear})
     })
   }
   pass.bind_fragment_samplers(0, samplers)
diff --git a/tests/bunnymark.ce b/tests/bunnymark.ce
index 77a63f79..9cf7e30c 100644
--- a/tests/bunnymark.ce
+++ b/tests/bunnymark.ce
@@ -87,16 +87,6 @@ function loop()
   render.present()
   dt = os.now() - now
   
-  fps_samples.push(dt)
-  if (length(fps_samples) > fps_window) fps_samples.shift()
-
-  if (now - last_fps_update >= fps_update_period) {
-    var sum = 0
-    arrfor(fps_samples, x => sum += x)
-    prosperon.window.title = `Bunnymark [fps: ${(length(fps_samples)/sum).toFixed(1)}]`;
-    last_fps_update = now
-  }
-
   var delay = (1/60) - dt
   $delay(loop, delay)
 }
diff --git a/tests/camera_colorspace.ce b/tests/camera_colorspace.ce
index 33af2e75..5e481059 100644
--- a/tests/camera_colorspace.ce
+++ b/tests/camera_colorspace.ce
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ for (var i = 0; i < length(formats); i++) {
   if (!colorspaces[fmt.colorspace]) {
     colorspaces[fmt.colorspace] = [];
   }
-  colorspaces[fmt.colorspace].push(fmt);
+  push(colorspaces[fmt.colorspace], fmt);
 }
 
 log.console("\nFound colorspaces:");
diff --git a/tests/surface.ce b/tests/surface.ce
index f2c0063f..527393cb 100644
--- a/tests/surface.ce
+++ b/tests/surface.ce
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 var Surface = use('sdl3/surface');
 
 // Test creating a surface
-var surf = new Surface({width: 100, height: 100});
+var surf = Surface({width: 100, height: 100});
 log.console("Created surface:", surf.width, "x", surf.height);
 
 log.console(surf)
@@ -26,12 +26,12 @@ var pixels = surf.pixels();
 log.console("Got pixels array buffer, length:", pixels.byteLength);
 
 // Test creating surface with custom format
-var surf4 = new Surface({width: 64, height: 64, format: "rgb24"});
+var surf4 = Surface({width: 64, height: 64, format: "rgb24"});
 log.console("Created RGB24 surface:", surf4.width, "x", surf4.height, "format:", surf4.format);
 
 // Test creating surface from pixels
-var pixelData = new ArrayBuffer(32 * 32 * 4); // 32x32 RGBA
-var surf5 = new Surface({width: 32, height: 32, pixels: pixelData});
+var pixelData = ArrayBuffer(32 * 32 * 4); // 32x32 RGBA
+var surf5 = Surface({width: 32, height: 32, pixels: pixelData});
 log.console("Created surface from pixels:", surf5.width, "x", surf5.height);
 
 log.console("Surface module test passed!");
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tilemap2d.cm b/tilemap2d.cm
index e0fca815..167ee5f5 100644
--- a/tilemap2d.cm
+++ b/tilemap2d.cm
@@ -19,10 +19,10 @@ var tilemap = {
     var y = pos.y - this.offset_y
     
     while (length(this.tiles) <= x)
-      this.tiles.push([])
+      push(this.tiles, [])
 
     while (length(this.tiles[x]) <= y)
-      this.tiles[x].push(null)
+      push(this.tiles[x], null)
     
     this.tiles[x][y] = image
   },
diff --git a/tween.cm b/tween.cm
index 8a70eceb..47b55409 100644
--- a/tween.cm
+++ b/tween.cm
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ function make_engine(default_clock) {
     tweens: [],
     default_clock: default_clock || null,
     add(tween) {
-      this.tweens.push(tween)
+      push(this.tweens, tween)
     },
     remove(tween) {
       this.tweens = filter(this.tweens, t => t != tween)
@@ -160,7 +160,7 @@ var TimelineProto = {
   engine: null,
 
   add_event: function(time_value, fn) {
-    this.events.push({ time: time_value, fn, fired: false })
+    push(this.events, { time: time_value, fn, fired: false })
   },
 
   add_tween: function(obj, props, duration, start_time) {